Relative Pronoun

Relative Pronouns A relative pronoun is a pronoun that introduces a relative clause. It is called a "relative" pronoun because it "relates" to the word that it modifies. Here is an example: The person who phoned me last night is my teacher. In the above example, "who": relates to "person", which it modifies introduces the relative clause "who phoned me last night" There are five relative pronouns: who, whom, whose, which, that* Who (subject) and whom (object) are generally only for people. Whose is for possession. Which is for things. That can be used for people** and things and as subject and object in defining relative clauses (clauses that are essential to the sentence and do not simply add extra information). Relative pronouns can refer to singular or plural, and there is no difference between male and female. Look at these examples showing defining and non-defining relative clauses: example sentences S=subject, O=object, P=possessive notes defining S - The person who phoned me last night is my teacher. - The person that phoned me last night is my teacher. That is preferable - The car which hit me was yellow. - The cars that hit me were yellow. That is preferable O - The person whom I phoned last night is my teacher. - The people who I phoned last night are my teachers. - The person that I phoned last night is my teacher. - The person I phoned last night is my teacher. Whom is correct but very formal. The relative pronoun is optional. - The car which I drive is old. - The car that I drive is old. - The car I drive is old. That is preferable to which. The relative pronoun is optional. P - The student whose phone just rang should stand up. - Students whose parents are wealthy pay extra. - The police are looking for the car whose driver was masked. - The police are looking for the car of which the driver was masked. Of which is usual for things, but whose is sometimes possible non-defining S - Mrs Pratt, who is very kind, is my teacher. - The car, which was a taxi, exploded. - The cars, which were taxis, exploded. O - Mrs Pratt, whom I like very much, is my teacher. - Mr and Mrs Pratt, who I like very much, are my teachers. Whom is correct but very formal. Who is normal. - The car, which I was driving at the time, suddenly caught fire. P - My brother, whose phone you just heard, is a doctor. - The car, whose driver jumped out just before the accident, was completely destroyed. - The car, the driver of which jumped out just before the accident, was completely destroyed. Of which is usual for things, but whose is sometimes possible *Not all grammar sources count "that" as a relative pronoun. **Some people claim that we cannot use "that" for people but must use "who/whom"; there is no good reason for such a claim.

Relative clauses

How to Form Relative Clauses Imagine, a girl is talking to Tom. You want to know who she is and ask a friend whether he knows her. You could say: A girl is talking to Tom. Do you know the girl? That sounds rather complicated, doesn't it? It would be easier with a relative clause: you put both pieces of information into one sentence. Start with the most important thing – you want to know who the girl is. Do you know the girl … As your friend cannot know which girl you are talking about, you need to put in the additional information – the girl is talking to Tom. Use „the girl“ only in the first part of the sentence, in the second part replace it with the relative pronoun (for people, use the relative pronoun „who“). So the final sentence is: Do you know the girl who is talking to Tom? Relative Pronouns relative pronoun use example who subject or object pronoun for people I told you about the woman who lives next door. which subject or object pronoun for animals and things Do you see the cat which is lying on the roof? which referring to a whole sentence He couldn’t read which surprised me. whose possession for people animals and things Do you know the boy whose mother is a nurse? whom object pronoun for people, especially in non-defining relative clauses (in defining relative clauses we colloquially prefer who) I was invited by the professor whom I met at the conference. that subject or object pronoun for people, animals and things in defining relative clauses (who or which are also possible) I don’t like the table that stands in the kitchen. Subject Pronoun or Object Pronoun? Subject and object pronouns cannot be distinguished by their forms - who, which, that are used for subject and object pronouns. You can, however, distinguish them as follows: If the relative pronoun is followed by a verb, the relative pronoun is a subject pronoun. Subject pronouns must always be used. the apple which is lying on the table If the relative pronoun is not followed by a verb (but by a noun or pronoun), the relative pronoun is an object pronoun. Object pronouns can be dropped in defining relative clauses, which are then called Contact Clauses. the apple (which) George lay on the table Relative Adverbs A relative adverb can be used instead of a relative pronoun plus preposition. This often makes the sentence easier to understand. This is the shop in which I bought my bike. → This is the shop where I bought my bike. relative adverb meaning use example when in/on which refers to a time expression the day when we met him where in/at which refers to a place the place where we met him why for which refers to a reason the reason why we met him Defining Relative Clauses Defining relative clauses (also called identifying relative clauses or restrictive relative clauses) give detailed information defining a general term or expression. Defining relative clauses are not put in commas. Imagine, Tom is in a room with five girls. One girl is talking to Tom and you ask somebody whether he knows this girl. Here the relative clause defines which of the five girls you mean. Do you know the girl who is talking to Tom? Defining relative clauses are often used in definitions. A seaman is someone who works on a ship. Object pronouns in defining relative clauses can be dropped. (Sentences with a relative clause without the relative pronoun are called Contact Clauses.) The boy (who/whom) we met yesterday is very nice. Non-Defining Relative Clauses Non-defining relative clauses (also called non-identifying relative clauses or non-restrictive relative clauses) give additional information on something, but do not define it. Non-defining relative clauses are put in commas. Imagine, Tom is in a room with only one girl. The two are talking to each other and you ask somebody whether he knows this girl. Here the relative clause is non-defining because in this situation it is obvious which girl you mean. Do you know the girl, who is talking to Tom? Note: In non-defining relative clauses, who/which may not be replaced with that. Object pronouns in non-defining relative clauses must be used. Jim, who/whom we met yesterday, is very nice. How to Shorten Relative Clauses? Relative clauses with who, which, that as subject pronoun can be replaced with a participle. This makes the sentence shorter and easier to understand. I told you about the woman who lives next door. – I told you about the woman living next door. Do you see the cat which is lying on the roof? – Do you see the cat lying on the roof? Exercises on Relative Clauses Relative Pronouns and Relative Adverbs Exercise on Relative Pronouns Subject Pronouns or Object Pronouns? Relative Pronouns – Necessary or not? Relative Pronouns – Necessary or not? Relative Adverbs Relative Pronouns in the Text „Stonehenge“ (who/which) Relative Clauses and Contact Clauses Relative Clauses - Formation Contact Clauses Definitions with Relative Clauses Relative Clauses - defining or non-defining? Non-Defining Relative Clauses Forming Relative Clauses - defining and non-defining Relative Clauses in the Text „San Francisco“

Connector

Connectors A connector is a word that is used to join words or sentences. And, as well as, but, or, yet, nevertheless, however, so that, as long as, while, until, as if, because, when, after, though, before. A boy and a girl An elephant and a giraffe A toy or a book The music was loud nevertheless it was enjoyable. Types of connectors Sub Topics Coordinating conjunctions Use of 'and' Use of 'Or' Example: Correlative conjunctions: Conjunctions used in pairs are correlative conjunctions Compound conjunctions Subordinating conjunction Observe the use of connectors in these sentences. Coordinating conjunctions Back to Top Coordinating conjunctions join together clauses of equal importance. Some examples of coordinating conjunctions are - and, but, or, Use of 'and' Back to Top 'And' is used as a conjunction when the words or phrases are of equal importance and both conditions exist. Other words that can be used in place of and are: moreover, in addition to, along with, plus, as well as, further more Tom and Harry play hockey. A lion and a fox live in this cave. We need some gloves and a ball in addition to bats. The soldiers rose moreover they cheered the leader. We found the thief along with the bags. The gurgling stream along with the howling wind added to the charm of the place. Use of 'but' The conjunction 'but' is used to show a contradiction between two phrases. Let's say the first phrase leads you to expect a certain event and the second phrase tells you quite a contradictory outcome. In such an event, but, is used. Other words like: nevertheless, yet, however, can be used in place of 'but' He ran, but he missed the bus. She studied hard but could not score well in the test. The hill was very steep but the old man could climb it easily. Sharon fell from the horse nevertheless she did not cry. The lion was hungry yet it did not attack Androcles. He is from England however he speaks Chinese very well. Use of 'Or' Back to Top When we need to express a choice between two words or phrases we use 'or'. Here only one of the two conditions exists. Example: Back to Top Would you take a cup of tea or coffee? Shall we buy a book or a toy? Sit on the bench or on the grass. Are you tired or shall we go out for a walk? We can learn to talk English or we can depend on sign language. Correlative conjunctions: Back to Top Conjunctions used in pairs are correlative conjunctions Back to Top Either..... or Either Peter or John has taken the book. Neither.....nor It is neither hot nor tasty. Both.....and My sister is both smart and intelligent. Whether..... or Tell me whether you know the route or not. Not only..... but also Not only is she stupid but also stubborn. Compound conjunctions Back to Top Compound conjunctions are groups of words that behave like conjunctions. In order that, on condition that, provided that, as soon as Conjunction Usage In order that I bought all the books in order that you may study On condition that The teacher excused him on condition that he would not repeat the mistake. Even if Sarah would not marry him even if he proposed to her. So that I kept away my work so that I could spend time with my daughters Provided that You can take leave provided that you work overtime later As though Rex behaves as though he is the boss. As well as Monica as well as veronica was present there As soon as Mr. Ford plans to pay off his loan as soon as he gets his bonus. As if It looks as if there is going to be a storm. Subordinating conjunction Back to Top A subordinating conjunction joins a clause to another on which it depends for its full meaning. The chief subordinating conjunctions are after, because, if, that, though, although, till, before, unless. I will not go to the market if it rains. The situation 'I will not go to the market' is dependant on the condition 'if it rains'. You could go and play after you have done the dishes. King Midas was unhappy because his daughter turned to gold. You must dig the earth till you find water. Observe the use of connectors in these sentences. Back to Top Lydia likes to sing and dance when she is happy. We can paint our house red or white but we must select a good painter. Harry is intelligent however he is lazy. He must wake up or he will regret it. I left the party because I was bored, moreover it was quite late. He was sad and tired along with being very hungry when a wizard appeared and offered him food however he laid down some conditions. He is cheerful though he has worked the whole day. I allowed him in as I thought he was a friend but he tried to rob me. You will do well if you study hard. My daughters either watch TV or sleep on Sundays. Susan is very fat but very active. I met by friend in the park and invited her to tea. A student must obey or he may leave. Jane and Peter have been chosen to receive the guest. After the trip Sam came to work but he was very tired. Bring some sandwiches or you will be hungry. They jumped over the stream and ran home. The dog ran after the rabbit but could not catch him. My aunt is ill so I will visit her tomorrow. The show started as soon as the chief guest arrived. You will enjoy the concert since you love music. This horse will take you to the village you even if he is tired. He was rowing the boat while I slept. The bridge fell though it was made of stones. You will pass if you work hard. He will not try unless he is forced to. We will come after we complete the work. The old man cared for the puppy as though she was his baby. Connector Chart COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS LINKING ADVERBS / TRANSITION WORDS These join two words, phrases or independent clause. They mostly occur mid-sentence with a comma placed before the conjunction. They may also occur at the beginning of a sentence – note. These join equivalent sentence elements such as one noun phrase with another noun phrase. These occur as paired words. (Also see Focusing Adverbs.) These join a dependent clause to an independent clause. They occur at the beginning of sentences with a comma separating the clause mid-sentence or they occur mid-sentence with no comma. These join two independent clauses or sentences. They can be used at the beginning of a sentence or mid- sentence (with punctuation). They transition the reader from the thought of one sentence to the thought in the next. He talked and listened. (same subject) He talked, and I listened (different subjects) She was tired, so we left. Both his project and hers ended. Neither he nor she knows how to ski. You car uses more gas than this one. This computer is as fast as that one. Though it rained, we went. We went though it rained. Besides being cold, we were hungry. We were hungry besides being cold. We wanted to go. However, it rained. We wanted to go; however, it rained. We wanted to go; it rained, however. In addition, it was windy and cold. ADDITION and, also, and also ADDITION both...and, not only ...also, not only ... but also, and...too, and so ADDITION besides, in addition to ADDITION / ORDERING in addition, furthermore, moreover, additionally, besides, firstly, secondly, next, finally ALTERNATIVE or, nor ALTERNATIVE either...or, neither...nor , rather than (1) ALTERNATIVE rather than(2) ALTERNATIVE instead, as an alternative, otherwise, rather CAUSE-EFFECT so, for CAUSE-EFFECT so...that, such...that CAUSE-EFFECT (reason) because, since, now that, as, in order, as long as, inasmuch, because of, due to, owing to, so that, in order that, if only because CAUSE-EFFECT therefore, consequently, as a consequence, as a result, thus, hence, accordingly COMPARISON COMPARISON as…as, more...than, less...than COMPARISON as (like), as if, as though COMPARISON In the same way, Similarly, In contrast, Unlike X, Y CONDITION or else CONDITION whether.. or not CONDITION if, only if, unless, even if, whether, whether or not, provided (that), in case, in the event (that) CONDITION otherwise, in the event (that), anyway, anyhow CONTRAST but, yet, but still, but anyway CONTRAST neither... nor CONTRAST (contrary outcome) although, even though, though, while, whereas, despite, in spite of, regardless of CONTRAST nevertheless, nonetheless, however, on the one hand, on the other hand, in contrast to, in contrast, on the contrary EMPHASIS EMPHASIS EMPHASIS EMPHASIS indeed, in fact, of course, certainly PLACE PLACE PLACE where, wherever PLACE TIME TIME TIME after, before, when, while, since, as, until, as soon as, by the time, once TIME first, second, next, then, finally, previously, now, presently, next, still, meanwhile, subsequently, afterward

Passive Voice

Use of Passive Passive voice is used when the focus is on the action. It is not important or not known, however, who or what is performing the action. Example: My bike was stolen. In the example above, the focus is on the fact that my bike was stolen. I do not know, however, who did it. Sometimes a statement in passive is more polite than active voice, as the following example shows: Example: A mistake was made. In this case, I focus on the fact that a mistake was made, but I do not blame anyone (e.g. You have made a mistake.). Form of Passive Subject + finite form of to be + Past Participle (3rd column of irregular verbs) Example: A letter was written. When rewriting active sentences in passive voice, note the following: the object of the active sentence becomes the subject of the passive sentence the finite form of the verb is changed (to be + past participle) the subject of the active sentence becomes the object of the passive sentence (or is dropped) Examples of Passive Level 2 Tense Subject Verb Object Simple Present Active: Rita writes a letter. Passive: A letter is written by Rita. Simple Past Active: Rita wrote a letter. Passive: A letter was written by Rita. Present Perfect Active: Rita has written a letter. Passive: A letter has been written by Rita. Future I Active: Rita will write a letter. Passive: A letter will be written by Rita. Hilfsverben Active: Rita can write a letter. Passive: A letter can be written by Rita. Examples of Passive Level 4 Tense Subject Verb Object Present Progressive Active: Rita is writing a letter. Passive: A letter is being written by Rita. Past Progressive Active: Rita was writing a letter. Passive: A letter was being written by Rita. Past Perfect Active: Rita had written a letter. Passive: A letter had been written by Rita. Future II Active: Rita will have written a letter. Passive: A letter will have been written by Rita. Conditional I Active: Rita would write a letter. Passive: A letter would be written by Rita. Conditional II Active: Rita would have written a letter. Passive: A letter would have been written by Rita. Passive Sentences with Two Objects Level 3 Rewriting an active sentence with two objects in passive voice means that one of the two objects becomes the subject, the other one remains an object. Which object to transform into a subject depends on what you want to put the focus on. Subject Verb Object 1 Object 2 Active: Rita wrote a letter to me. Passive: A letter was written to me by Rita. Passive: I was written a letter by Rita. . As you can see in the examples, adding by Rita does not sound very elegant. That’s why it is usually dropped. Personal and Impersonal Passive Personal Passive simply means that the object of the active sentence becomes the subject of the passive sentence. So every verb that needs an object (transitive verb) can form a personal passive. Example: They build houses. – Houses are built. Verbs without an object (intransitive verb) normally cannot form a personal passive sentence (as there is no object that can become the subject of the passive sentence). If you want to use an intransitive verb in passive voice, you need an impersonal construction – therefore this passive is called Impersonal Passive. Example: he says – it is said Impersonal Passive is not as common in English as in some other languages (e.g. German, Latin). In English, Impersonal Passive is only possible with verbs of perception (e. g. say, think, know). Example: They say that women live longer than men. – It is said that women live longer than men. Although Impersonal Passive is possible here, Personal Passive is more common. Example: They say that women live longer than men. – Women are said to live longer than men. The subject of the subordinate clause (women) goes to the beginning of the sentence; the verb of perception is put into passive voice. The rest of the sentence is added using an infinitive construction with 'to' (certain auxiliary verbs and that are dropped). Sometimes the term Personal Passive is used in English lessons if the indirect object of an active sentence is to become the subject of the passive sentence. Excercises Exercises on Passive (Form) Exercise on Passive with Simple Present Level 2 Exercise on Passive with Simple Past Level 2 Exercise on Passive with Present Perfect Level 2 Exercise on Passive with Future I Level 2 Exercises on Passive (Active → Passive) Exercise on Passive with Simple Present Level 2 Exercise on Passive with Simple Past Level 2 Exercise on Passive with Present Perfect Level 2 Exercise on Passive with Future I Level 2 Exercise on Passive with Auxiliary Verbs Level 2 Mixed Exercise on Passive with Passive Level 2 Sentences with 2 Objects (Indirect Object, Personal Passive) Level 3 (neu) Sentences with 2 Objects (Direct Object) Level 3 (neu) Personal Passive (verbs of perception) Level 3 (neu) Exercise on Passive with Present Progressive Level 4 Exercise on Passive with Past Progressive Level 4 Exercise on Passive with Past Perfect Level 4 Exercise on Passive with Future II Level 4 Exercise on Passive with Conditional I Level 4 Exercise on Passive with Conditional II Level 4 Exercises on Passive (Active or Passive) Exercise on Simple Present Level 2 Exercise on Simple Past Level 2 Exercise on Present Perfect Level 2 Exercise on Future I with will Level 2 Exercise – The Statue of Liberty Level 3 (neu) Exercise – Portal Dolmen Level 3 (neu) Summary – The Fellowship of the Ring, part 2, part 3 Level 3 Grammar in Texts Show Passive Voice in „The Canterville Ghost“ Level 2 Grammar Exercise on „Washington, DC“ Level 2 Show Passive Voice in „History of Snowboarding“ Level 4 Tests on Passiv Tenses Active and Passive Level 3 Active and Passive Voice – Simple Past Tense Active sentences in the simple past tense have the following structure: Subject + past tense form of the verb + object Passive sentences in the simple past tense have the following structure: Object of the active sentence + was/were + past participle form of the verb + by + subject of the active sentence Changing an assertive sentence into the passive Active: He wrote a letter. Passive: A letter was written by him. Active: They knew it. Passive: It was known to them. Active: She sang a song. Passive: A song was sung by her. Active: He loved his friends very much. Passive: His friends were loved very much by him. Changing a negative sentence into the passive Active: She did not know anything about it. Passive: Nothing about it was known to her. Active: Nobody could discourage him from pursuing his path. Passive: He could not be discouraged from pursuing his path by anybody. Active: You did not listen to me. Passive: I was not listened to by you. Active: She did not write a story. Passive: A story was not written by her. Changing an interrogative sentence into the passive Passive forms of these sentences begin with did. If the active sentence begins with a question word, the passive sentence will also begin with a question word. If the active sentence begins with who or whose, the passive sentence will begin with by whom or by whose. If the active sentence begins with whom, the passive sentence will begin with who. Active: Did he break the window? Passive: Was the window broken by him? Active: Where could you find such fine art? Passive: Where could such fine art be found? Active: Why did you abuse your servant? Passive: Why was your servant abused by you? Active: Did anyone steal your purse? Passive: Was your purse stolen by anyone? Active: Did anyone hurt your feelings? Passive: Were your feelings hurt by anyone? Active: Did Alice invite you? Passive: Were you invited by Alice? Active: Who killed the snake? Passive: By whom was the snake killed? Active: Why did he punish you? Passive: Why were you punished by him? Active: Whom did you laugh at? Passive: Who was laughed at by you?

Casuative Verbs

Jack had his house painted. This sentence is similar in meaning to: Someone painted Jack's house. OR Jack's house was painted by someone. Causative verbs express the idea of someone causing something to take place. Causative verbs can be similar in meaning to passive verbs. Examples: My hair was cut. (passive) I had my hair cut. (causative) Both 'make' and 'have' can be used as causative verbs. Make 'Make' as a causative verb expresses the idea that the person requires another person to do something. Construction Chart Subject + Make + Person + Base Form of Verb Examples: Peter made her do her homework. The teacher made the students stay after class. Have 'Have' as a causative verb expresses the idea that the person wants something to be done for them. This causative verb is often used when speaking about various services. There are two forms of the causative verb 'have'. Construction Chart: Use 1 Subject + Have + Person + Base Form of Verb Examples: They had John arrive early. She had her children cook dinner for her. Construction Chart: Use 2 Subject + Have + Object + Past Participle Examples: I had my hair cut last Saturday. She had the car washed at the weekend. Note: This form is similar in meaning to the passive. The following is a mini-tutorial on the use of the causative verbs "let," "make," "have," and "get." After you have studied the tutorial, complete the associated exercises. If you already know how to use these verbs, you can skip the explanation and go directly to the exercises. Let FORM [let + person + verb] USE This construction means "to allow someone to do something." Examples: John let me drive his new car. Will your parents let you go to the party? I don't know if my boss will let me take the day off. Make FORM [make + person + verb] USE This construction means "to force someone to do something." Examples: My teacher made me apologize for what I had said. Did somebody make you wear that ugly hat? She made her children do their homework. Have FORM [have + person + verb] USE This construction means "to give someone the responsibility to do something." Examples: Dr. Smith had his nurse take the patient's temperature. Please have your secretary fax me the information. I had the mechanic check the brakes. Get FORM [get + person + to + verb] USE This construction usually means "to convince to do something" or "to trick someone into doing something." Examples: Susie got her son to take the medicine even though it tasted terrible. How can parents get their children to read more? The government TV commercials are trying to get people to stop smoking. Get vs. Have Sometimes "get someone to do something" is interchangeable with "have someone do something," but these expressions do not mean exactly the same thing. Examples: I got the mechanic to check my brakes. At first the mechanic didn't think it was necessary, but I convinced him to check the brakes. I had the mechanic check my brakes. I asked the mechanic to check the brakes.

Adjective

Definition

Adjectives are words that describe or modify another person or thing in the sentence. The Articles — a, an, and the — are adjectives.

the tall professor
the lugubrious lieutenant
a solid commitment
a month's pay
a six-year-old child
the unhappiest, richest man

If a group of words containing a subject and verb acts as an adjective, it is called an Adjective Clause. My sister, who is much older than I am, is an engineer. If an adjective clause is stripped of its subject and verb, the resulting modifier becomes an Adjective Phrase: He is the man who is keeping my family in the poorhouse.

Before getting into other usage considerations, one general note about the use — or over-use — of adjectives: Adjectives are frail; don't ask them to do more work than they should. Let your broad-shouldered verbs and nouns do the hard work of description. Be particularly cautious in your use of adjectives that don't have much to say in the first place: interesting, beautiful, lovely, exciting. It is your job as a writer to create beauty and excitement and interest, and when you simply insist on its presence without showing it to your reader — well, you're convincing no one.

Consider the uses of modifiers in this adjectivally rich paragraph from Thomas Wolfe's Look Homeward, Angel. (Charles Scribner's, 1929, p. 69.) Adjectives are highlighted in this color; participles, verb forms acting as adjectives, are highlighted in this blue. Some people would argue that words that are part of a name — like "East India Tea House — are not really adjectival and that possessive nouns — father's, farmer's — are not technically adjectives, but we've included them in our analysis of Wolfe's text.

He remembered yet the East India Tea House at the Fair, the sandalwood, the turbans, and the robes, the cool interior and the smell of India tea; and he had felt now the nostalgic thrill of dew-wet mornings in Spring, the cherry scent, the cool clarion earth, the wet loaminess of the garden, the pungent breakfast smells and the floating snow of blossoms. He knew the inchoate sharp excitement of hot dandelions in young earth; in July, of watermelons bedded in sweet hay, inside a farmer's covered wagon; of cantaloupe and crated peaches; and the scent of orange rind, bitter-sweet, before a fire of coals. He knew the good male smell of his father's sitting-room; of the smooth worn leather sofa, with the gaping horse-hair rent; of the blistered varnished wood upon the hearth; of the heated calf-skin bindings; of the flat moist plug of apple tobacco, stuck with a red flag; of wood-smoke and burnt leaves in October; of the brown tired autumn earth; of honey-suckle at night; of warm nasturtiums, of a clean ruddy farmer who comes weekly with printed butter, eggs, and milk; of fat limp underdone bacon and of coffee; of a bakery-oven in the wind; of large deep-hued stringbeans smoking-hot and seasoned well with salt and butter; of a room of old pine boards in which books and carpets have been stored, long closed; of Concord grapes in their long white baskets.

An abundance of adjectives like this would be uncommon in contemporary prose. Whether we have lost something or not is left up to you.
Position of Adjectives

Unlike Adverbs, which often seem capable of popping up almost anywhere in a sentence, adjectives nearly always appear immediately before the noun or noun phrase that they modify. Sometimes they appear in a string of adjectives, and when they do, they appear in a set order according to category. (See Below.) When indefinite pronouns — such as something, someone, anybody — are modified by an adjective, the adjective comes after the pronoun:

Anyone capable of doing something horrible to someone nice should be punished.
Something wicked this way comes.

And there are certain adjectives that, in combination with certain words, are always "postpositive" (coming after the thing they modify):

The president elect, heir apparent to the Glitzy fortune, lives in New York proper.

See, also, the note on a- adjectives, below, for the position of such words as "ablaze, aloof, aghast."
Degrees of Adjectives

Adjectives can express degrees of modification:

Gladys is a rich woman, but Josie is richer than Gladys, and Sadie is the richest woman in town.

The degrees of comparison are known as the positive, the comparative, and the superlative. (Actually, only the comparative and superlative show degrees.) We use the comparative for comparing two things and the superlative for comparing three or more things. Notice that the word than frequently accompanies the comparative and the word the precedes the superlative. The inflected suffixes -er and -est suffice to form most comparatives and superlatives, although we need -ier and -iest when a two-syllable adjective ends in y (happier and happiest); otherwise we use more and most when an adjective has more than one syllable.
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Positive Comparative Superlative
rich richer richest
lovely lovelier loveliest
beautiful more beautiful most beautiful

Certain adjectives have irregular forms in the comparative and superlative degrees:
Irregular Comparative and Superlative Forms
good better best
bad worse worst
little less least
much
many
some more most
far further furthest

Be careful not to form comparatives or superlatives of adjectives which already express an extreme of comparison — unique, for instance — although it probably is possible to form comparative forms of most adjectives: something can be more perfect, and someone can have a fuller figure. People who argue that one woman cannot be more pregnant than another have never been nine-months pregnant with twins.
Grammar's Response

According to Bryan Garner, "complete" is one of those adjectives that does not admit of comparative degrees. We could say, however, "more nearly complete." I am sure that I have not been consistent in my application of this principle in the Guide (I can hear myself, now, saying something like "less adequate" or "more preferable" or "less fatal"). Other adjectives that Garner would include in this list are as follows:
absolute impossible principal
adequate inevitable stationary
chief irrevocable sufficient
complete main unanimous
devoid manifest unavoidable
entire minor unbroken
fatal paramount unique
final perpetual universal
ideal preferable whole

From The Oxford Dictionary of American Usage and Styleby Bryan Garner. Copyright 1995 by Bryan A. Garner. Published by Oxford University Press, Inc., www.oup-usa.org, and used with the gracious consent of Oxford University Press.

Be careful, also, not to use more along with a comparative adjective formed with -er nor to use most along with a superlative adjective formed with -est (e.g., do not write that something is more heavier or most heaviest).

The as — as construction is used to create a comparison expressing equality:

He is as foolish as he is large.
She is as bright as her mother.

Premodifiers with Degrees of Adjectives

Both adverbs and adjectives in their comparative and superlative forms can be accompanied by premodifiers, single words and phrases, that intensify the degree.

We were a lot more careful this time.
He works a lot less carefully than the other jeweler in town.
We like his work so much better.
You'll get your watch back all the faster.

The same process can be used to downplay the degree:

The weather this week has been somewhat better.
He approaches his schoolwork a little less industriously than his brother does.

And sometimes a set phrase, usually an informal noun phrase, is used for this purpose:

He arrived a whole lot sooner than we expected.
That's a heck of a lot better.

If the intensifier very accompanies the superlative, a determiner is also required:

She is wearing her very finest outfit for the interview.
They're doing the very best they can.

Occasionally, the comparative or superlative form appears with a determiner and the thing being modified is understood:

Of all the wines produced in Connecticut, I like this one the most.
The quicker you finish this project, the better.
Of the two brothers, he is by far the faster.

Authority for this section: A University Grammar of English by Randolph Quirk and Sidney Greenbaum. Longman Group: Essex, England. 1993. Used with permission.
Less versus Fewer
When making a comparison between quantities we often have to make a choice between the words fewer and less. Generally, when we're talking about countable things, we use the word fewer; when we're talking about measurable quantities that we cannot count, we use the word less. "She had fewer chores, but she also had less energy." The managers at our local Stop & Shop seem to have mastered this: they've changed the signs at the so-called express lanes from "Twelve Items or Less" to "Twelve Items or Fewer." Whether that's an actual improvement, we'll leave up to you.

We do, however, definitely use less when referring to statistical or numerical expressions:

It's less than twenty miles to Dallas.
He's less than six feet tall.
Your essay should be a thousand words or less.
We spent less than forty dollars on our trip.
The town spent less than four percent of its budget on snow removal.

In these situations, it's possible to regard the quantities as sums of countable measures.

Taller than I / me ??
When making a comparison with "than" do we end with a subject form or object form, "taller than I/she" or "taller than me/her." The correct response is "taller than I/she." We are looking for the subject form: "He is taller than I am/she is tall." (Except we leave out the verb in the second clause, "am" or "is.") Some good writers, however, will argue that the word "than" should be allowed to function as a preposition. If we can say "He is tall like me/her," then (if "than" could be prepositional like like) we should be able to say, "He is taller than me/her." It's an interesting argument, but — for now, anyway — in formal, academic prose, use the subject form in such comparisons.

We also want to be careful in a sentence such as "I like him better than she/her." The "she" would mean that you like this person better than she likes him; the "her" would mean that you like this male person better than you like that female person. (To avoid ambiguity and the slippery use of than, we could write "I like him better than she does" or "I like him better than I like her.")

More than / over ??
In the United States, we usually use "more than" in countable numerical expressions meaning "in excess of" or "over." In England, there is no such distinction. For instance, in the U.S., some editors would insist on "more than 40,000 traffic deaths in one year," whereas in the UK, "over 40,000 traffic deaths" would be acceptable. Even in the U.S., however, you will commonly hear "over" in numerical expressions of age, time, or height: "His sister is over forty; she's over six feet tall. We've been waiting well over two hours for her."

The Order of Adjectives in a Series

It would take a linguistic philosopher to explain why we say "little brown house" and not "brown little house" or why we say "red Italian sports car" and not "Italian red sports car." The order in which adjectives in a series sort themselves out is perplexing for people learning English as a second language. Most other languages dictate a similar order, but not necessarily the same order. It takes a lot of practice with a language before this order becomes instinctive, because the order often seems quite arbitrary (if not downright capricious). There is, however, a pattern. You will find many exceptions to the pattern in the table below, but it is definitely important to learn the pattern of adjective order if it is not part of what you naturally bring to the language.

The categories in the following table can be described as follows:

Determiners — articles and other limiters. See Determiners
Observation — postdeterminers and limiter adjectives (e.g., a real hero, a perfect idiot) and adjectives subject to subjective measure (e.g., beautiful, interesting)
Size and Shape — adjectives subject to objective measure (e.g., wealthy, large, round)
Age — adjectives denoting age (e.g., young, old, new, ancient)
Color — adjectives denoting color (e.g., red, black, pale)
Origin — denominal adjectives denoting source of noun (e.g., French, American, Canadian)
Material — denominal adjectives denoting what something is made of (e.g., woolen, metallic, wooden)
Qualifier — final limiter, often regarded as part of the noun (e.g., rocking chair, hunting cabin, passenger car, book cover)

# THE ROYAL ORDER OF ADJECTIVES #
Determiner Observation Physical Description Origin Material Qualifier Noun
Size Shape Age Color
a beautiful old Italian touring car
an expensive antique silver mirror
four gorgeous long-
stemmed red silk roses
her short black hair
our big old English sheepdog
those square wooden hat boxes
that dilapidated little hunting cabin
several enormous young American basketball players
some delicious Thai food
# This chart is probably too wide to print on a standard piece of paper. If you click HERE, you will get a one-page duplicate of this chart, which you can print out on a regular piece of paper.

It would be folly, of course, to run more than two or three (at the most) adjectives together. Furthermore, when adjectives belong to the same class, they become what we call coordinated adjectives, and you will want to put a comma between them: the inexpensive, comfortable shoes. The rule for inserting the comma works this way: if you could have inserted a conjunction — and or but — between the two adjectives, use a comma. We could say these are "inexpensive but comfortable shoes," so we would use a comma between them (when the "but" isn't there). When you have three coordinated adjectives, separate them all with commas, but don't insert a comma between the last adjective and the noun (in spite of the temptation to do so because you often pause there):

a popular, respected, and good looking student

See the section on Commas for additional help in punctuating coordinated adjectives.
Capitalizing Proper Adjectives

When an adjective owes its origins to a proper noun, it should probably be capitalized. Thus we write about Christian music, French fries, the English Parliament, the Ming Dynasty, a Faulknerian style, Jeffersonian democracy. Some periods of time have taken on the status of proper adjectives: the Nixon era, a Renaissance/Romantic/Victorian poet (but a contemporary novelist and medieval writer). Directional and seasonal adjectives are not capitalized unless they're part of a title:

We took the northwest route during the spring thaw. We stayed there until the town's annual Fall Festival of Small Appliances.

See the section on Capitalization for further help on this matter.

Collective Adjectives

When the definite article, the, is combined with an adjective describing a class or group of people, the resulting phrase can act as a noun: the poor, the rich, the oppressed, the homeless, the lonely, the unlettered, the unwashed, the gathered, the dear departed. The difference between a Collective Noun (which is usually regarded as singular but which can be plural in certain contexts) and a collective adjective is that the latter is always plural and requires a plural verb:

The rural poor have been ignored by the media.
The rich of Connecticut are responsible.
The elderly are beginning to demand their rights.
The young at heart are always a joy to be around.


Adjectival Opposites

The opposite or the negative aspect of an adjective can be formed in a number of ways. One way, of course, is to find an adjective to mean the opposite — an antonym. The opposite of beautiful is ugly, the opposite of tall is short. A thesaurus can help you find an appropriate opposite. Another way to form the opposite of an adjective is with a number of prefixes. The opposite of fortunate is unfortunate, the opposite of prudent is imprudent, the opposite of considerate is inconsiderate, the opposite of honorable is dishonorable, the opposite of alcoholic is nonalcoholic, the opposite of being properly filed is misfiled. If you are not sure of the spelling of adjectives modified in this way by prefixes (or which is the appropriate prefix), you will have to consult a dictionary, as the rules for the selection of a prefix are complex and too shifty to be trusted. The meaning itself can be tricky; for instance, flammable and inflammable mean the same thing.

A third means for creating the opposite of an adjective is to combine it with less or least to create a comparison which points in the opposite direction. Interesting shades of meaning and tone become available with this usage. It is kinder to say that "This is the least beautiful city in the state." than it is to say that "This is the ugliest city in the state." (It also has a slightly different meaning.) A candidate for a job can still be worthy and yet be "less worthy of consideration" than another candidate. It's probably not a good idea to use this construction with an adjective that is already a negative: "He is less unlucky than his brother," although that is not the same thing as saying he is luckier than his brother. Use the comparative less when the comparison is between two things or people; use the superlative least when the comparison is among many things or people.

My mother is less patient than my father.
Of all the new sitcoms, this is my least favorite show.

Some Adjectival Problem Children
Good versus Well

In both casual speech and formal writing, we frequently have to choose between the adjective good and the adverb well. With most verbs, there is no contest: when modifying a verb, use the adverb.
He swims well.
He knows only too well who the murderer is.
However, when using a linking verb or a verb that has to do with the five human senses, you want to use the adjective instead.
How are you? I'm feeling good, thank you.
After a bath, the baby smells so good.
Even after my careful paint job, this room doesn't look good.
Many careful writers, however, will use well after linking verbs relating to health, and this is perfectly all right. In fact, to say that you are good or that you feel good usually implies not only that you're OK physically but also that your spirits are high.
"How are you?"
"I am well, thank you."

Bad versus Badly

When your cat died (assuming you loved your cat), did you feel bad or badly? Applying the same rule that applies to good versus well, use the adjective form after verbs that have to do with human feelings. You felt bad. If you said you felt badly, it would mean that something was wrong with your faculties for feeling.


Other Adjectival Considerations

Review the section on Compound Nouns and Modifiers for the formation of modifiers created when words are connected: a four-year-old child, a nineteenth-century novel, an empty-headed fool.

Review the section on Possessives for a distinction between possessive forms and "adjectival labels." (Do you belong to a Writers Club or a Writers' Club?)

Adjectives that are really Participles, verb forms with -ing and -ed endings, can be troublesome for some students. It is one thing to be a frightened child; it is an altogether different matter to be a frightening child. Do you want to go up to your professor after class and say that you are confused or that you are confusing? Generally, the -ed ending means that the noun so described ("you") has a passive relationship with something — something (the subject matter, the presentation) has bewildered you and you are confused. The -ing ending means that the noun described has a more active role — you are not making any sense so you are confusing (to others, including your professor).

The -ed ending modifiers are often accompanied by prepositions (these are not the only choices):

We were amazed at all the circus animals.
We were amused by the clowns.
We were annoyed by the elephants.
We were bored by the ringmaster.
We were confused by the noise.
We were disappointed by the motorcycle daredevils.
We were disappointed in their performance.
We were embarrassed by my brother.
We were exhausted from all the excitement.
We were excited by the lion-tamer.
We were excited about the high-wire act, too.
We were frightened by the lions.
We were introduced to the ringmaster.
We were interested in the tent.
We were irritated by the heat.
We were opposed to leaving early.
We were satisfied with the circus.
We were shocked at the level of noise under the big tent.
We were surprised by the fans' response.
We were surprised at their indifference.
We were tired of all the lights after a while.
We were worried about the traffic leaving the parking lot.

A- Adjectives

The most common of the so-called a- adjectives are ablaze, afloat, afraid, aghast, alert, alike, alive, alone, aloof, ashamed, asleep, averse, awake, aware. These adjectives will primarily show up as predicate adjectives (i.e., they come after a linking verb).

The children were ashamed.
The professor remained aloof.
The trees were ablaze.

Occasionally, however, you will find a- adjectives before the word they modify: the alert patient, the aloof physician. Most of them, when found before the word they modify, are themselves modified: the nearly awake student, the terribly alone scholar. And a- adjectives are sometimes modified by "very much": very much afraid, very much alone, very much ashamed, etc.

Relative Clause

Relative Clause adalah bagian dari kalimat (anak kalimat) yang memberi keterangan pada orang atau benda yang mendahuluinya. Istilah Relative Clause sama dengan Adjective Clause. Disebut Adjective Clause karena dia menerangkan benda atau orang yang mendahuluinya. Disebut Relative Clause karena dia menghubungkan (me-relate) benda atau orang tersebut dengan frasa di belakangnya. Relative Clause diawali dengan kata penghubung who, whom, whose, which, that, dengan fungsi sebagai berikut

Who: menerangkan orang sebagai subject
Whom: menerangkan kan orang sebagai object (menggantikan me, you, us, him, her,
them, it)
Whose:menerangkan orang sebagai pemilik (menggantikan my, your, our, his, her, their,
its)
Which: menerangkan benda sebagai subject maupun object
That menerangkan orang atau benda baik sebagai subject maupun object

Contoh:
Orang atau benda yang bergaris bawah pada kalimat sebelah kiri adalah sama dengan kata ganti orang atau benda yang bergaris bawah dalam kalimat sebelah kanan.Kata penghubung dibuat berdasarkan kata ganti orang atau benda dalam kalimat di sebelah kanan.

1. The fisherman gave us some tunas. He caught a lot of tunas.
--The fisherman who caught a lot of tunas gave us some. (subjek)
2. The farmer was away on holiday. I wanted to see him.
--The farmer whom I wanted to see was away on holiday. (objek)
3. The woman asked me. Her bike was lost.
--The woman whose bike was lost asked me. (pemilik)


Latihan
1. the man talked all the time. I sat next to him on the plane.
2. A man answered the phone. He told me you were out.
The man ......
3. A waitress served us. she was very impolite and impatient.
The .....
4. Some boys were arrested. They have now been released.
The boys .....
5. We saw some people. Their car had broken down.
We saw some people ... car had broken down.

Solusi
1. I met a man ... is kind to everybody.
2. The woman ... I called gave me some information.
3. I know the man ... bike is lost.
4. I'll show you the ring ... he gave to me.
5. The man with ... you came to the party is my father.

Untuk memecahkan soal seperti di atas, dapat digunakan trik sebagai berikut:
1. Jika kata sebelum titik-titik adalah menunjukkan manusia, dan setelah titik-titik adalah kata kerja atau kata kerja bantu seperti to be atau modals, atau auxilliary 'do' (is, isn't, do, don't, will, won't, can, can't, was, wasn't, dll), maka isi titik-titik adalah who.

2. Jika kata sebelum titik-titik adalah menunjukkan manusia, atau manusia diikuti oleh kata depan seperti with, to, by, from, dll dan setelah titik-titik adalah subjek (kata benda, nama orang, atau kata ganti: I, you, we she, he, it, Abdel, Temon, dll), maka isi titik-titik adalah whom.

3. Jika kata sebelum titik-titik adalah menunjukkan orang, atau hewan, dan kata setelah titik-titik adalah kata benda, maka isi titik-titik tersebut adalah whose.

4. Jika kata sebelum titik-titik adalah kata benda yang menunjukkan bukan manusia, maka isi titik-titik adalah which.

Dengan demikian jawaban untuk soal-soal di atas adalah: 1. who, 2. whom, 3. whose, dan 4. which, 5. whom


Catatan; Dalam bahasa percakapan sehari-hari whom seringkali tidak dipakai, sebagai gantinya adalah who; Imet the man who you talked to last week.

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